Banduras Social Learning Theory essays

Bandura's Social Learning Theory essays BACKGROUND OF SOCIAL LEARNING AND COGNITIVE THEORY Social learning and imitation was proposed by Miller and Dollard but rejected ideas of behaviorism related by association. It was a theory of learning, however, that did not account for new responses or the processes of delayed and non-reinforced imitations. Bandura widened the not yet developed parts of social learning theory in his book Social Learning and Personality Development written in 1963. It was not until the 1970s, that Bandura discovered there was something missing to the present day learning theories as well as his own social learning theory. The missing link to his theory were self-beliefs. This was identified in his writing Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Albert Bandura discovered the big debate in dealing with the concept of behaviorism. He felt that it was inadequate for describing complex human functioning and that it is a persons environment that causes behavior. He argued that the cause and effect relationship between environmental forces and behavior outcomes are reciprocal, that peoples environments and their behavior simultaneously create and affect each other. In his publication of Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory he stresses that people have certain understandings that allow them to have a certain amount of control over their feelings, actions, and thoughts. Bandura wrote, what people think, believe, and feel affects how they behave. This understandings or beliefs are based on five ideas: symbolizing, self-regulatory, self-reflexive, vicarious and forethought. They are also referred to as his five human competencies. As a result, human behavior is made from a combination of outside influences an d these five ideas. Banduras social learning or cognitive theory is best explained in three categories: observational learning, self-regulation, an...

Crowdfunding †Whether You Need the Money or Not

Crowdfunding – Whether You Need the Money or Not FundsforWriters is all about helping you earn enough money, whether its finding jobs, publishing or freelancing. Crowdfunding is off and running, and its Like with grants, many writers I know do not want to bother with crowdfunding. Its another learning curve, they dont like asking for money, theyd have to pay taxes on the money, you name it. But the one that doesnt make sense is I dont need the money, so I shouldnt ask for it. Crowdfunding has turned into more than the needy asking for funds. Crowdfunding is a strategic method of finding supporters. When you proudly and passionately promote your project, then offer rewards for people to jump on board your train, you are campaigning for all of you to propel a project into fruition. It isnt a poor person asking for a handout. Its the group of you making something exciting happen! Look at the successful BIG projects on crowdfunding. Watches, movies, all sort of inventions. Publishers even post their next book project. i Just saw a nonprofit press post about their next poets chapbook, asking for support. What they are doing is not only financial, but also promotional. Its getting the news out ahead of time, and the blog updates within the crowdfunding page keeps the supporters updated as to progress. It becomes a community effort instead of an author, a publisher, and a reader. Hello Ru 1000 Days of Spring is a memoir that asked for $6,400 and gained $12,790. www.indiegogo.com/projects/1000-days-of-spring With each dollar comes a reader or two! See crowdfunding as a tool in your promo toolbox, not just a place to find money. Not only will you gain readers, but successful campaigns are trolled

Encouragement and Motivation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Encouragement and Motivation - Essay Example The types of workers in these organizations may range from highly skilled staff to relatively unskilled staff workers. In order to be successful, the managers need to motivate and encourage their wide array of employees. This paper describes the methods I would use, as a manager, to encourage and motivate the workers. Motivating Staff Motivating staff in order for them to perform at optimum ability is integral to running the workforce. Most people need work in order to make money but, although this proves to be a strong incentive, there are other ways. Employees will gain satisfaction and enjoy their jobs if they are aware that they are achieving results (Williams, 2012). First, a manager will need to recruit suitable employees, and then define their responsibilities and roles clearly before finally enabling them to do their job well. The first way to motivate employees is to celebrate results. The manager should focus on activities that are rewarding on an immediate basis (Williams, 2012). Afterwards, the manager should ensure that even those who were not directly involved in experiencing a project’s success get to hear or witness it. Another way to motivate employees is via the creation of a good work environment, which, in turn aids in getting the work done. Comfortable conditions with common amenities and a few luxuries encourage and motivate employees. Additionally, there should be suitable equipments for the job, which will require regular maintenance maintained to avoid interference and frustrating breakdowns with the job schedule. The manager should also attempt to establish a clear goal, as well as ownership. The staff needs to comprehend and focus their energy towards achieving the goal. All the workers must comprehend the organization’s mission and vision with ideas being encouraged from all staff levels (Williams, 2012). This helps since the staff will care more for the implementation of plans that originated from them. Finally, the ma nager can motivate his workforce by fostering communication, teamwork, and feedback (Williams, 2012). People want to be told that their work as a team member is commendable. The best way for a manager to handle this is by treating all staff as valued team members. To create and maintain teamwork, good communication, should be effected, as well as a clear understanding of the other member’s role, as well as fostering close involvement. Meetings need to be conducted with clear outcomes at the end, with employees motivated by seeing and getting things done (Williams, 2012). Equally, if something is agreed on then not put into action, the employees could be disheartened. Therefore, difficulties or delays need to be fed back to the workforce. Without this feedback, the employees become puzzled and frustrated when promised changes do not come to fruition. Encouraging Staff Appraisals act as the starting blocks for managing a worker’s motivation and performance (Williams, 201 2). Appraisals are of huge importance since they help the staff in understanding their role in the organization, as well as the enhancement of communication between themselves and the manager. The appraisals are aimed at getting an employee’s suggestions or wishes and encouraging them in a suitable direction, while maintaining focus on what is required by the organization. The appraisal needs to come up

Macroeconomic Objectives of the UK Govenment Economic Policy Assignment

Macroeconomic Objectives of the UK Govenment Economic Policy - Assignment Example This paper offers a comprehensive analysis of the framework of macroeconomic policies of the government of the UK. In order to exercise effective administration of the country the government must determine the objectives of its policy. Then the target has to be selected. The next task is to choose the instruments of policy to be used in pursuit of the objectives. Four major economic objectives, that any government should pursue, include low unemployment level, price stability, satisfactory balance of payment position and sufficient sustainable economic growth. In addition to four major economic objectives a government may have other objectives for the economy. These may include a more even distribution income of wealth and a cleaner environment. It is difficult to achieve all four macro economic objectives at a time. Countries rarely experience stable economic growth. Instead they experience business cycles. Periods of rapid economic growth are followed by periods of low growth or even a fall in output. Sometimes, these cycles can be the result of government policy of raising taxes in a recession in order to compensate for falling tax revenues caused by lower incomes and expenditures. Unemployment fluctuates with business cycles. High employment has a number of significant advantages. Most people receive higher incomes from employment than from state benefits. Governments usually not aim for complete price stability but for low and stable rate of inflation. The government also is to ensure balance of payment equilibrium. ... New classical economist refers to the non-accelerating rate of unemployment ( NAIRU). It can also be called the natural rate of unemployment. It is the rate of unemployment which exists when all those who want to work at the going wage rate and who have the appropriate skills can find a job (Storm & Naastepad 2012).  . Whether it is example four percent or 8 percent will depend on a number of factors. These include the gap between paid employment and state benefit, attitudes towards living on benefits, labor market information and skill levels. A government basing its policies on new classical theory would seek to reduce NAIRU by improving the working of the labor market ( Top of Form Fabiani 1998).   Bottom of Form . Furthermore, Governments usually not aim for complete price stability but for a low and stable rate of inflation. Complete price stability or zero inflation would mean that the general price level is not changing. In practice, in a dynamic, growing economy the gener al price the general price level is likely to rise by between 1% and 2% per year. This rise will reflect the buoyancy level of demand and the fact that the quality of goods tends to rise. For example, a television purchased in the year 2013 may be 5% more expensive than one purchased in 2012 but it may also, for instance, have extra channels and give better reception. If the rate of inflation is equal to or below rival countries, the countries can at least maintain its international price competitiveness. If it is stable then firms do not have to guess what wage claims they need to make to maintain their real wages. However, high and accelerating inflation is clearly undesirable. It can reduce a country’s international competitiveness, reduce the real income of some groups, create

Heat Transfer from Steam to Water Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Heat Transfer from Steam to Water - Lab Report Example Heat is a form of energy and the level of energy contained in a certain object is shown by the level of temperature in the object. The main purpose of this experiment was to test on the heat transfer from steam to water. Stem is usually produced when the water is heated to its boiling point and the heat can also be transferred from steam to water. Unlike the heat transfer by the other processes, e.g. condensation, radiation and conduction, heat transfer by condensation for example in steam does not involve temperature change. The steam passes on its latent heat to the products when it condenses on the heat transfer surface. This product formed for the condensate still contains its own sensible heat and this heat is of the same temperature that is contained in the steam from which it was produced. This experiment uses two sets of equipment. The first set is described under â€Å"Heating Liquids in Tank Storage.† The second set is described under â€Å"Corning Heat Exchanger.â €  The main aim of this experiment is to test on the heat transfer from the steam to water and to produce analysis from the data collected in the lab. Usually, the latent heat that is contained within the steam is released instantly as the steam condenses into the liquid state. The amount of latent heat that is released ranges from 2-5 times greater than the amount of sensible heat available from water after cooling.The objective is to determine the overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo) for the external heat exchanger at two different water circulation rates.   The rate of heat transfer that is often obtained during the condensation of the vapour is always very crucial since it is used in many industries in the steam heated vessels where the steam condenses and produces the heat. It is also applied in the distillation and evaporation where vapors produced must first be condensed. The latent heat of vaporization is produced at a constant temperature that is the boiling temperat ure of the liquid. The Equations were used to compute the over-heat transfer coefficient. The equations enabled the valves of both experimental as well as heat transfer coefficient to be calculated.

Non-standard English: Usage and attitudes

Non-standard English: Usage and attitudes Introduction Spoken language is a powerful method of communication that conveys more than intended referential information. Depending on the listeners attitude, a speakers accent or dialect may imply a number of characteristics such as social class and professionalism. Examples of non-standard linguistic features are discussed under Task 1; followed by summaries of two studies under Task 2, which focus on attitudes towards West Indian Patois (Edwards, 1986) and the Cockney accent (Giles Sassoon, 1982). Task 1 Thats the girl he gave the bracelet to. This sentence contains a grammatical, non-standard linguistic feature because it ends with the preposition to. In Standard English, a preposition usually proceeds a noun, hence the sentence should read: Thats the girl to whom he gave the bracelet. However, there are cases where sentences sound unnatural if they are arranged in a way that avoids a final proposition. This is usually seen in conversational English, for example: in relative clauses and questions which feature phrasal verbs, passive constructions, and short sentences which feature an infinitive or verbal noun. Nonetheless, in formal writing, it is considered better practice to avoid placing a preposition at the end of a sentence where it may seem stranded. (Preposition, 2008) Buffy the vampire slayer is dead cool. This sentence contains a lexical, non-standard linguistic feature because dead functions as an adverb of degree, such as very; the sentence should read, Buffy the vampire slayer is very cool, or of a similar effect. Dead typically functions as an adjective, meaning no longer alive, and is used in contexts such as a dead bodyor a dead issue. It has therefore undergone semantic change, and its meaning has been broadened. (Dead, 2017) My old man gave me a set of wheels for my birthday. This sentence contains lexical, non-standard linguistic features because slang is used. My old man is a colloquial, informal noun phrase meaning ones father or a womans husband or boyfriend; set of wheels is also a colloquial, informal noun phrase meaning a motor vehicle, as opposed to a literal set of wheels. According to Standard English, the sentence should read: My father gave me a motor vehicle for my birthday. The phrases have thus undergone semantic change. (Old man, 2017) The guy that works in the bar is really nice. This sentence contains a lexical, non-standard linguistic feature due to the use of the informal noun, guy, meaning man (Guy, 2017). There is also a grammatical, nonstandard linguistic feature because, in Standard English, that should not be used as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is personal. A human antecedent is typically proceeded by who in a defining clause. An inanimate antecedent or a human but representative of a class is followed by that; for example, the chair that collapsed / the baby that laughed. In Standard English, the sentence should therefore read: The man who works in the bar is really nice. (That, 1998) Who did you see? This sentence contains a grammatical, non-standard linguistic feature because who is used in place of whom. In Standard English, who is a relative pronoun or an interrogative when it refers to the subject (who is there?). Whom is the objective form, hence the sentence should read: Whom did you see? However, the use of whom is declining and is often replaced by who in modern usage. (Who and whom, 2017) Task 2 A study of West Indian Patois, conducted by Viv Edwards (1986) A study of 45 British-born black adolescents in a West Midlands community (Edwards 1997: 409) reveals the attitudes of teachers and pupils towards West Indian Patois. Attitudes to Patois in the educational world are generally negative. The Association of Teachers of English to Pupils from Overseas (ATEPO 1970) describe West Indian language as babyish and lacking proper grammar (Edwards 1986: 25); the National Association of School Masters (1969) refer to West Indian language as a plantation English which is socially unacceptable and inadequate for communication (Edwards 1986: 25). These negative attitudes reflect some of the findings of Edwards (1986) West Midlands study. Conducted in Dudley, the study consisted of a judgement sample and comprised of 3 measures which were applied to the speech of 21 women and 24 men, aged between 16 and 23: frequency of Patois features, competence in Patois, and patterns of Patois usage. (Edwards 1997: 410). The studys findings are presented in 3 sets of interactions, as summarised below: Classroom Interaction, Pupil-Pupil Interactions and Pupil-Teacher Interactions. Classroom Interaction The stereotype that Patois speakers are limited to monolingualism was opposed by recordings of Black pupils using different language patterns in the classroom. Pupil-Pupil Interactions Contrary to the beliefs of the White community, Black pupils, who reduced the frequency and range of their nonstandard linguistic features, made a marked choice not to speak Standard English (despite their competence to speak both varieties). The use of Patois in the classroom was rare but virtually all black pupils could understand it, and used features in at least some situations. Within Black peer groups, it marked solidarity and acceptance; in mixed-raced groups, it functioned to exclude the White outsider. However, a few White pupils sought acceptance from Black friendship groups by using Patois, but their degree of competence varied. Some Black pupils responded with amusement and approval; most responded negatively to the White community for using a variety of English that was distinctively Black. Pupil-Teacher Interactions Black pupils used Patois to exclude their White teacher as means of defiance. Teachers then felt threatened when Patois was used in a confrontational way. Teachers who responded punitively elicited negative attitudes towards Patois. Other reports of teacher responses included learning nonstandard linguistic features in an attempt to understand Black dialect. Edwards (1997) concludes that teachers punitive responses and the use of Patois to exclude the White community are a reflection of the issues caused by negative attitudes towards nonstandard varieties of English. A study of Cockney, conducted by Howard Giles and Caroline Sassoon (1982) A study of a speakers accent and social class reveals the attitudes of 120 undergraduate listeners towards Cockney, in comparison to Received Pronunciation (RP). Based, on Ryan Sebastians (1980) study of the attitudes of middle class listeners towards Mexican-American in the USA, both studies were reminiscent of Lamberts (1967) matched-guise test and consisted of a tape-recording, followed by a questionnaire. Ryan Sebastian (1980) found that by disconfirming the listeners assumption of the accented speakers social class, their evaluations improved. Giles Sassoon (1982) referred to this as the Ryan Sebastian effect, which they later opposed in their hypothesis: awareness of a Cockney speakers social class would not attenuate significantly the unfavourable status associations commonly levied against nonstandard speech (pp. 306). The participants of the study (Ss) consisted of 63 males and 57 females, aged between 18 and 23. Ss heard 1 combination of a male students voice and social class information who was recorded reading two stimulus passages using RP and Cockney accents. The legitimacy of his bidialectal skills was assessed in a pilot study by 24 undergraduates. The studys dependant measures involved 5 small questionnaires, each consisting of 7-point rating scales and instructions. The questionnaires were: measures of Ss perception of the speakers social class, accent and formality of speech; social evaluation scales based on the speakers intelligence, success, friendliness and trustworthiness; belief similarity items which measured the extent that Ss agree[d] with the speaker on social issues such as the legislation of marijuana; social distance items which measured how close a relationship Ss were willing to have with the speaker; and social role items which determined Ss willingness to work with the speaker as subordinate to, superior over, or colleague with them (pp. 307). Ss were recorded in groups of up to 6 other undergraduates; they were handed the 5 questionnaires in the format of a response booklet with the social class information facing upwards. Once they had completed the task, they were debriefed and engaged in discussion. The results proved Giles Sassoons hypothesis; the awareness of the speakers middle class background did not prevent Ss from perceiving him as a low status evaluation when he used Cockney. Accent influenced the ratings on only 1 of 4 social issues; listeners shared more beliefs on the legislation of marijuana with the speaker when he used an RP accent; accent had no effect on social distance items; but the findings from the social role items showed that Ss preferred an RP speaker as their superordinate, and as a subordinate too (pp. 311). Giles Sassoon conclude that the awareness of a Cockney speakers middle class background does not prevent the stereotyped negative attitudes towards low status ratings (pp. 311). Conclusion The nonstandard linguistic features in Task 1 and the studies summarised in Task 2 portray several varieties of English. The mixed attitudes towards the widespread use of nonstandard linguistic features are a clear reflection of an ever-changing language. Word count: 1500 words References Allen, R. Fowler, H. (2008). Preposition. Pocket Fowlers Modern English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordreference.com.idpproxy.reading.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acref/9780199232581.001.0001/acref-9780199232581-e-3016?rskey=4f5JCxresult=1 Allen, R. Fowler, H. (2008). Who and whom. Pocket Fowlers Modern English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordreference.com.idpproxy.reading.ac.uk/view/10.1093/acref/9780199232581.001.0001/acref-9780199232581-e-4155?rskey=ducoglresult=2 Dead. (2017). Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford. Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/dead Edwards, V. (1986). Language In A Black Community. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Edwards, V. (2007). Patois and the Politics of Protest: Black English in British Classrooms. In Coupland, N. Jaworski, A. Sociolinguistics: A Reader and Coursebook. (408-415). London: MacMillan Press. Fowler, H. Burchfield, R. (1998). That. The new Fowlers Modern English usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Giles, H. Sassoon, C. (1983). The effect of speakers accent, social class background and message style on British listeners social judgements. Language Communication, 3(3), 305-313. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0271-5309(83)90006-x Guy. (2017). Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford. Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/guy Lambert, W. E. (1967). A social psychology of bilingualism. Journal of Social Issues. 23, 91- 109. Old man. (2017). Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford. Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/old_man

The Automatic Transmission and Decline of Western Morals :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

The Automatic Transmission and Decline of Western Morals When first struck with this notion, that the automatic transmission has caused the decline of Western morals, I was pumped-up and ready to go. I could've written the whole thing right then and there, sans research, sans forethought, sans plan. But then, what I thought to be the better angel of my nature kicked in and said that the responsible thing to do was to do research. Despite my future difficulties, I still think this to be the right course of action. What I wanted for the essay on automatic transmissions was automatic writing. The problems began to set in when it came time to actually do that research. I didn't wanna. Days stretched into weeks. Weeks into more weeks. The bloom was off the rose; the research just seemed like too much work-too much work on top of teaching, on top of domestic responsibilities. After many weeks, I realized that it was, in fact the automobile that I was at the time driving that influenced my attitude and created my lethargy. You see, due to a problem with my wife's car-an automatic-that made it difficult for her to drive, I was using it for my daily commute. After only a single week of driving her automatic-equipped car, I had lost all desire to do anything; I, like America, had become shiftless. The trend actually started before Oldsmobile marketed the first automatic in 1940 ("Stick Shifts" 4A). An ad for the 1939 model Chevrolet promises a "Perfected Vacuum Gear-Shift" that "does 80% of the work of shifting gears," beginning the trend to automobiles that were increasingly easier to operate (General Motors 31). This ad is echoed by rival Plymouth in the same issue of Time magazine: "Perfected Remote Control Shifting. . . with Auto-Mesh Transmission. Much Easier" (Chrysler 1). The implications are clear: even before the debauchery we associate with the 1960s, American values were beginning to crack; the idea that one should do things for oneself were beginning to be questioned by Madison Avenue, and, within a decade-and-a-half, by America itself. We don't, of course, associate the late 1930s with licentiousness, but our history-or our memories-deceive us. In the exact same issue of Time magazine that we find the telltale ads described above, we find a short report on the Golden Gate International Exposition of 1939. What makes this fair,